The Conquistadors: Exploration, Greed, and Destruction — Fexingo History

In this episode of The Conquistadors, Lucas and Luna explore the reign of Motecuhzoma Xocoyotzin, the ninth Aztec emperor who faced Cortés. They examine his early military campaigns, his reforms to the tribute system, and the complex web of political strategy and religious belief that shaped his response to the Spanish arrival. Was Motecuhzoma paralyzed by superstition, or was he a shrewd leader making calculated moves in an impossible situation? The hosts discuss his decision to send gifts to Cortés, his intelligence network, and the conflicting accounts from Spanish and Nahua sources. They also touch on the ro...

In June 1520, Cortés and his army fled Tenochtitlan under cover of darkness, only to be ambushed on a causeway in one of the most dramatic and bloody events of the Spanish conquest: the Noche Triste, or Sad Night. Lucas and Luna explore what led to the retreat—the Toxcatl massacre, the death of Moctezuma, and the uprising of the Mexica under Cuitláhuac. They reconstruct the battle itself: how the Spaniards, laden with gold, struggled across the Tlacopan causeway, how the Mexica warriors attacked from canoes and rooftops, and how hundreds of Spaniards and thousands of Tlaxcalan allies died...

Before the Spanish arrived, the Aztec Empire fought a unique kind of war called the xochiyaoyotl, or Flower War. In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore how these ritualized battles served multiple purposes: training warriors, capturing prisoners for sacrifice, and pressuring rival city-states. They focus on the conflict between Tenochtitlan and Tlaxcala, which had been locked in a generations-long Flower War when Cortés arrived. Drawing on the Florentine Codex and other sources, they discuss how the Tlaxcalans' expertise in this form of combat shaped their alliance with the Spanish. They also consider the debate among historians: was the F...

In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the devastating impact of famine and disease during the siege of Tenochtitlan in 1521. The discussion focuses on the smallpox epidemic that ravaged the city, the strategic blockade of food and water by Cortés's forces, and the resilience of the Mexica defenders. Drawing on accounts from the Florentine Codex and Bernal Díaz del Castillo, they examine how hunger and disease weakened the city before its final collapse. The episode highlights the role of cocoliztli (pestilence) and the tactical use of starvation as a weapon of conquest.

#Tenochtitlan #Smallpox #Cocoliztli #Fl...

Before Cuauhtémoc's final stand, another Mexica ruler briefly held the fate of Tenochtitlan in his hands. Cuitláhuac, the 10th Huey Tlatoani, ruled for just 80 days in 1520—but in that time he organized the military campaign that drove the Spanish from the city on the Noche Triste. This episode explores Cuitláhuac's life, his role as lord of Iztapalapa, his leadership in the Toxcatl massacre, and his sudden death from smallpox that changed the course of the conquest. We examine the Nahuatl sources that record his actions and the mystery of his burial. What if Cuitláhuac had lived...

In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the myth and meaning of Quetzalcoatl, the Feathered Serpent god of Mesoamerica. They trace his origins among the Olmec, Maya, and Toltec, examine his role in cosmology as the wind god Ehecatl and the planet Venus, and unpack the controversial legend that Cortés was mistaken for Quetzalcoatl's returning avatar. Drawing on the Florentine Codex, Popol Vuh, and archaeological finds at Teotihuacan and Tula, they separate fact from fiction and reveal how this deity shaped Mesoamerican religion and the conquest itself. A nuanced look at one of archaeology's most misunderstood figures.

Before Cortés ever set foot in Tenochtitlan, Moctezuma's spies were already watching him. The pochteca were far more than traders — they were Aztec intelligence agents who roamed Mesoamerica gathering information for the empire. In this episode, Lucas and Luna uncover the hidden world of these elite merchants: how they financed conquest, reported enemy movements, and even controlled the flow of tribute goods like cacao and quetzal feathers. We explore their special courts, their lavish feasts, and the surprising ways they became the eyes and ears of the Huey Tlatoani. Drawing on the Florentine Codex and accounts from Bernal Día...

In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the final months of the Aztec Empire through the eyes of its last ruler, Cuauhtémoc. They trace his rise to power after Moctezuma's death, the desperate defense of Tenochtitlan, and his capture on August 13, 1521. The conversation covers the symbolism of his name (meaning 'Descending Eagle'), the brutal interrogation under Cortés to reveal hidden treasure, and his eventual execution in 1525 during Cortés's disastrous expedition to Honduras. Along the way, they examine the Florentine Codex's account of Cuauhtémoc's surrender, the role of the Tlaxcalan allies, and the lingering controversy over whet...

In the shadow of Moctezuma's tribute demands, the Totonac city of Cempoala—also known as the Place of Many Waters—chose a risky alliance with Hernán Cortés in 1519. This episode explores the Totonac perspective: their anger at Aztec tax collectors, the political calculations of the Cacique Gordo (Fat Chief), and how they provided Cortés with 400 tameme porters and 15,000 warriors. We examine the Cempoala pyramid, the ritual of bloodletting, and the tribute lists of the Matrícula de Tributos. The alliance was a gamble that reshaped Mesoamerica, but it also left the Totonac subjugated under Spanish encomiendas. Featurin...

In 1521, Hernán Cortés ordered the construction of thirteen brigantines — shallow-draft warships — to break the Aztec hold on Tenochtitlan. But two of those ships never made it to battle. They sank in Lake Texcoco before a single shot was fired. What caused the loss? Who was responsible? And what did the sinking reveal about the fragile alliance between Spanish invaders and their Tlaxcalan allies? This episode examines the logistics, the sabotage rumors, the scapegoating of a Spanish carpenter, and the aftermath that reshaped Cortés's strategy. Drawing on Bernal Díaz del Castillo's account and the Florentine Codex, we piece...

In this episode, we dive deep into the military and political alliance between Hernán Cortés and the Tlaxcalan confederation — arguably the single most decisive factor in the fall of Tenochtitlan. We explore how four independent Tlaxcalan lords (Tizatlan, Ocotelolco, Quiahuitzlan, and Tepeticpac) navigated internal rivalries, their long-standing enmity with the Aztec Triple Alliance, and the calculated decision to ally with the Spanish after initial bloody battles. We discuss key figures like Xicotencatl the Elder, the blind leader of Tizatlan who advocated alliance, and Xicotencatl the Younger, the military commander who fiercely opposed it. The conversation covers the crit...

After the fall of Tenochtitlan and the Mixtón rebellion, the Spanish faced an even more intractable enemy: the Chichimeca of the northern deserts. Unlike the settled empires of central Mexico, these nomadic archers refused to be conquered, fought without a central leader, and turned the silver-rich Bajío region into a war zone for over forty years. In this episode, Lucas and Luna examine the Chichimeca War (1550–1590), exploring the brutal counter-insurgency tactics of Viceroy Mendoza, the devastating use of chichimeca archers against the Spanish, the role of the Otomí as frontier allies, and the eventual shift from war to pe...

In 1519, Hernán Cortés ordered his own ships scuttled off the coast of Veracruz — a dramatic act that became legend. But did he really burn them? This episode separates fact from myth, exploring what actually happened to the eleven vessels, why Cortés made that choice, and how the story evolved through chroniclers like Bernal Díaz del Castillo and Francisco López de Gómara. We also look at the strategic context: the mutinous faction in Villa Rica de la Veracruz, the Aztec spies watching from the shore, and the psychological impact on Cortés's men. Plus: the physi...

In 1540, a coalition of Indigenous peoples in western Mexico rose up against Spanish rule in a conflict that would become known as the Mixtón War. Led by the Caxcan leader Tenamaztle, the rebellion swept through the provinces of Nueva Galicia, targeting encomiendas, missions, and Spanish settlements. The Spanish response was brutal: Viceroy Antonio de Mendoza personally led an army of conquistadors and Indigenous allies, including Tlaxcalans and Aztecs, to crush the revolt. This episode examines the causes, key battles, and aftermath of the Mixtón War, including the role of the infamous Nuño de Guzmán's earlier atro...

In this episode, Lucas and Luna dive into the opening days of the siege of Tenochtitlan in May 1521. They examine Cortés's strategy of cutting off the city's water supply from Chapultepec, the devastating impact of the brigantines on the lake, and the fierce resistance led by Cuauhtémoc. The conversation highlights the role of Tlaxcalan allies, the use of cannons and crossbows, and the gradual encirclement of the Aztec capital. Drawing on Bernal Díaz del Castillo's firsthand account and the Florentine Codex, they explore a moment of high tension: the failed assault on the Tacuba causeway, where the...

When Hernán Cortés landed on the Mexican Gulf Coast in 1519, he found a people simmering with resentment against the Aztec Empire: the Totonac. Based in the prosperous city of Cempoala, the Totonac had been forced to pay heavy tribute to Moctezuma II—cacao, cotton, feathers, and even human sacrifices. Their leader, a rotund cacique nicknamed the Fat Chief by Spanish chroniclers, saw in Cortés a chance to break free. This episode explores the Totonac alliance from their perspective: why they allied with a handful of Spaniards, how they provided crucial support at Cempoala and Villa Rica de la...

In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore how the Spanish conquest of Mesoamerica was financed not by Spanish gold but by Indigenous tribute networks. They trace the Mexica tribute system—recorded in the Matrícula de Tributos—which funneled cacao, cotton, maize, and jade from 38 provinces into Tenochtitlan. After 1521, Cortés repurposed these same mechanisms through encomiendas, demanding labor and goods from native communities to fund expeditions into Oaxaca, Michoacán, and beyond. The discussion highlights figures like Moctezuma Xocoyotzin, Cuauhtémoc, and the cihuacoatl Tlacaelel, whose administrative genius was co-opted by the conquerors. The episode also touches on the trib...

Before chocolate became a sweet treat, it was money. In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the role of cacao beans as currency in Aztec society. They discuss how cacao was harvested, processed, and used for everyday purchases from food to brides, touching on the tribute system, the cacao drink enjoyed by nobles, and what happened when Cortés and his men encountered this strange 'brown gold.' They also look at how the Spanish adapted cacao for their own use, adding sugar and vanilla to create the forerunner of modern chocolate. The episode draws on sources like the F...

In this episode of The Conquistadors, Lucas and Luna explore the extraordinary life of Malintzin—better known as La Malinche—the Nahua woman who served as Hernán Cortés's interpreter, advisor, and diplomat during the conquest of Mexico. They trace her origins as a noblewoman sold into slavery among the Maya, her linguistic genius that allowed her to bridge Nahuatl, Maya, and Spanish, and her pivotal role in forging the alliances—most crucially with the Tlaxcalans—that brought down Tenochtitlan. The conversation examines how Malintzin navigated extreme power imbalances, why she has been reviled in Mexican history as a traitor...

We've talked about the encomienda system before, but this episode digs into what came next—and what coexisted alongside it. After the New Laws of 1542 tried to phase out encomiendas, Spanish officials didn't abolish forced labor; they just rebranded it. The repartimiento system—also called the 'repartimiento de indios'—became the new mechanism for funneling indigenous workers into Spanish mines, farms, and construction projects. We trace how this system functioned in practice, from the silver mines of Zacatecas to the fields of Michoacán. We look at the 'corregidores' and 'alcaldes mayores' who administered the labor drafts, the indigenous communi...

In this episode, Lucas and Luna revisit the Requerimiento — the Spanish legal decree read to indigenous peoples before conquest — but from a new angle: its afterlife. They explore how the document was weaponized by conquistadors, how Bartolomé de las Casas and Francisco de Vitoria debated its legitimacy, and how its logic of 'just war' echoes in later colonial legal codes. The conversation touches on the Requerimiento's use in the Mixtón War, its translation into Nahuatl, and the irony of a text meant to offer peace that was almost always read in Spanish to people who couldn't understand it. They a...

In 1521, Hernán Cortés faced a seemingly impossible problem: how to besiege an island city without a navy. His solution—building a fleet of thirteen brigantines in Tlaxcala, carrying them over the mountains, and launching them on Lake Texcoco—was one of the most audacious logistical feats of the conquest. This episode dives into the construction, transport, and tactical use of those ships, drawing on accounts from Bernal Díaz del Castillo, the Florentine Codex, and Spanish shipbuilding records. We'll look at the Spanish shipwright Martín López, who supervised the project, the thousands of Tlaxcalan laborers who cut t...

On the night of June 30, 1520, Hernán Cortés and his men attempted to flee Tenochtitlan under cover of darkness. What followed was a catastrophic rout that the Spanish would forever call the Noche Triste — the Night of Sorrows. This episode reconstructs the events of that night in vivid detail: the causeway of Tlacopan, the portable bridge that collapsed under the weight of gold, the battle cries of Aztec warriors, and the staggering losses on both sides. We explore the tactical decisions that led to the disaster, the role of the Tlaxcalan allies, and the aftermath that nearly destroyed the...

In October 1519, just two months after arriving in Tenochtitlan, Hernán Cortés orchestrated one of the most brutal episodes of the Spanish conquest: the massacre of thousands of unarmed nobles and commoners in the sacred city of Cholula. This episode unpacks what happened, why it happened, and how it shaped the course of the invasion. Drawing on indigenous accounts from the Florentine Codex and Spanish chronicles like Bernal Díaz del Castillo, we separate legend from evidence — including the contested story that Cortés knew of a planned ambush thanks to La Malinche. We also examine Cholula's significance as a r...

Episode 82 of The Conquistadors takes a step back from the familiar Cortés narrative to explore the earlier, often overshadowed expedition of Juan de Grijalva in 1518. We follow Grijalva's fleet as it charts the Yucatán coast, encounters the Maya at Potonchán, and receives the first verifiable Spanish claims of a wealthy empire inland—information that would spur Velázquez to authorize Cortés. Learn about the skirmish at Champotón, the naming of Río Grijalva, and the crucial role of interpreter Melchor, a Maya man captured during the Hernández de Córdoba expedition. We also discuss the...

Before Cortés and Pizarro, there was Vasco Núñez de Balboa — a stowaway who became governor, crossed the Isthmus of Panama in 1513, and claimed the Pacific Ocean for Spain. This episode follows his improbable rise, his ruthless consolidation of power in Darién, the betrayal by his father-in-law Pedrarias Dávila, and his execution on trumped-up charges. We explore the clash between conquistador ambition and Spanish crown control, the role of indigenous allies like the Cueva people, and the enduring legacy of Balboa's discovery. A story of exploration, greed, and the high cost of empire.

#VascoNúñezdeBalbo...

When Cortés laid siege to Tenochtitlan in 1521, the final stand happened not in the central island city but in its twin, Tlatelolco. This episode focuses on the last 93 days of the Aztec empire, from the cutting of the Chapultepec aqueduct to the final desperate resistance in Tlatelolco's marketplace. Lucas and Luna explore the tactical decisions of Cuauhtémoc, the role of Tlaxcalan allies in the canal warfare, and the devastating impact of smallpox on the defenders. They also discuss the controversial figure of Xicotencatl the Younger, who led Tlaxcalan forces but was later executed by Cortés. The epi...

In this episode, we explore the role of war dogs—specifically the alano español and lebrel breeds—in Hernán Cortés's conquest of Mexico. While horses and guns often get the spotlight, Spanish mastiffs and greyhounds were deployed as weapons of terror and tactical advantage, especially during the Noche Triste and the siege of Tenochtitlan. We examine specific instances from Bernal Díaz del Castillo's accounts, the Florentine Codex, and the Lienzo de Tlaxcala, where dogs are depicted attacking indigenous warriors. We also discuss how indigenous allies like the Tlaxcalans quickly adapted, using their own dogs and tactics...

In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore a chilling and often overlooked aspect of the Spanish conquest of Mesoamerica: the use of war dogs. While steel swords and gunpowder get most of the attention, the conquistadors brought trained mastiffs and greyhounds that terrorized indigenous armies and were used as weapons of terror. Lucas details the specific breeds, their training, and how they were deployed in battle, including the infamous killing of Cuauhtémoc's envoys and the use of dogs during the Mixtón War. The episode also examines indigenous perspectives from the Florentine Codex and other sources, showing how th...

In 1521, Hernán Cortés laid siege to Tenochtitlan, the Aztec capital, for 75 days. This episode covers the brutal blockades, the use of brigantines built by Tlaxcalan allies, the smallpox epidemic that ravaged the city, and the final assault led by Cortés and García Holguín. We explore the tactical decisions, the role of indigenous allies, and the aftermath—Cuauhtémoc's capture, the destruction of the Templo Mayor, and the birth of Mexico City on the ruins. Learn about the causeways of Tlacopan and Iztapalapa, the fresh water supply cut from Chapultepec, and the key battles at Tlatelol...

In 1519, Hernán Cortés made landfall on the Gulf Coast of Mexico and quickly forged an alliance with the Totonac people of Cempoala, a wealthy city-state resentful of Aztec domination. This episode unpacks how the Totonac ruler, known in Spanish sources as the 'Cacique Gordo' or Fat Chief, welcomed Cortés, provided him with warriors and supplies, and helped him create the first Spanish settlement—Villa Rica de la Veracruz. We examine the political calculations behind this alliance, the Totonac's motivations for rebellion against Moctezuma II, and how Cortés manipulated internal divisions among Mesoamerican polities. We also explor...

In 1513, Spanish officials drafted the Requerimiento, a legal document read to indigenous peoples before any attack. Written in Spanish and Latin, it demanded submission to the Spanish Crown and the Catholic Church—under threat of enslavement and war. In practice, it was often read from ship decks or to empty villages, a bizarre ritual that reveals the legalistic mindset behind the conquest. This episode explores the origins of the Requerimiento in the aftermath of Antonio de Montesinos's 1511 sermon, its composition by jurist Juan López de Palacios Rubios, and the dramatic first reading by conquistador Pedrarias Dávila in Pana...

In 1530, the Purépecha Empire of Michoacán stood as the second-largest state in Mesoamerica, a rival that had successfully resisted the Aztec Triple Alliance. When Spanish forces under Cristóbal de Olid arrived, the cazonci (emperor) Tangáxuan II chose diplomacy over war, even converting to Christianity and paying tribute. But Nuño de Guzmán, the brutal president of the First Audiencia, saw an opportunity. In this episode, Lucas and Luna examine the dramatic downfall of Tangáxuan II, the destruction of the Purépecha elite at Tzintzuntzan, and the horrific execution of the last cazonci. They explore...

When Hernán Cortés landed in Mexico in 1519, he was vastly outnumbered by the Aztec warriors of Tenochtitlan. But he didn't conquer alone. This episode unpacks the military and political alliance between the Spanish conquistadors and the Tlaxcalan Confederacy — a fierce, independent Nahua state that had resisted Aztec rule for generations. We explore Tlaxcala's pre-contact society, its four lords (the apizacos), the brutal 1519 battles that nearly destroyed Cortés's army, and the fateful decision by the Tlaxcalan council to ally with the newcomers against their ancient enemy. The episode traces how Tlaxcalan warriors and leaders — including Xicotencatl the Elder...

In the shadow of the Aztec and Spanish empires, the Chichimeca nomads of northern Mexico waged a guerrilla war that neither Moctezuma nor Cortés could win. This episode explores how Chichimeca archers with bows and arrows held off Spanish steel for decades, why the Mixtón War was just a prelude, and how the Spanish finally bought peace with food and land rather than swords. We examine the Chichimeca War (1550–1590), the role of the Otomí as frontier settlers, the disastrous policy of slavery and forced relocation, and the eventual 'peace by purchase' strategy of Viceroy Martín Enríquez. K...

In 1524, the K'iche' Maya ruler Tecún Umán led his warriors against Pedro de Alvarado in the highlands of Guatemala. This episode explores the Battle of Quetzaltenango, the death of Tecún Umán, and how Alvarado used Tlaxcalan and Kaqchikel allies to subdue the Maya kingdoms. We examine the cultural significance of the quetzal bird, the legend of Tecún Umán as a national hero, and the contrasting accounts in Spanish chronicles and Maya oral traditions. A nuanced look at resistance, alliance, and the reshaping of Mesoamerica beyond the Aztec heartland.

#TecúnUmán #PedrodeA...

Before the Spanish ever set foot in the Andes, the Inca had already engineered one of the most extraordinary infrastructures in human history: the Qhapaq Ñan, or Great Inca Road. This episode takes you along that 25,000-mile network of stone-paved highways, rope bridges, and relay runners that connected the far reaches of Tawantinsuyu. Lucas and Luna discuss how the road system enabled rapid military deployment, efficient tribute collection, and the spread of Quechua as a lingua franca. They explore the chasqui messenger system, the tambo waystations, and the quipu record-keeping that kept the empire running without a written language. T...

In 1540, just two decades after the fall of Tenochtitlan, a massive indigenous uprising erupted in western Mexico. The Mixtón War pitted Spanish forces and their Tlaxcalan allies against the Caxcan people and other Chichimeca groups. This episode examines the causes: the brutality of the encomienda system under Nuño de Guzmán, the role of the Mixtón rebellion leader Tenamaztle, the siege of Nochistlán, and the eventual Spanish victory led by Viceroy Antonio de Mendoza. We also discuss the aftermath—the forced resettlement of survivors and the long-term effects on the region's native population. A little-known but piv...

Before Cortés, before Pizarro, there was Alonso de Ojeda. A brash young hidalgo who sailed with Columbus on his second voyage, then led his own expeditions to the unknown coasts of South America. This episode follows Ojeda's career: from his swashbuckling early days in Seville, to the disastrous founding of San Sebastián de Urabá, to the legal battles that followed his return. We explore his partnership with Juan de la Cosa (the cartographer who owned the first European ship to sight the mainland), his rivalry with Diego de Nicuesa, and the landscape of mangrove swamps and poisoned arr...

In this episode of The Conquistadors, Lucas and Luna explore the encomienda system, the brutal labor and tribute institution that underpinned Spanish colonization in Mesoamerica. They trace its origins from the Reconquista in Spain to its imposition in the Caribbean and New Spain, focusing on how it transformed indigenous societies. The discussion covers the legal framework of the Requerimiento and the Burgos Laws, the protests of Friar Antonio de Montesinos and Bartolomé de las Casas, and the infamous encomendero Juan de Villarreal. They examine the system's impact on native populations, including the demographic collapse from disease and overwork, and t...