The Complete History of Science
A podcast exploring the history of science from the beginning. We will cover all of the most important scientific discoveries from Archimedes to Newton to Einstein. The aim is to give a complete overview of how science evolved and how it shaped the modern world.Support the show and keep it going: https://buymeacoffee.com/completehistoryofscienceFollow me on BlueSky for updates: https://bsky.app/profile/gethinrichards.bsky.socialYouTube:https://youtube.com/@thecompletehistoryofscienceMusic credit:Folk Round Kevin MacLeod (incompetech.com)Licensed under Creative Commons: By Attribution 3.0http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/Photo credit: "L0015096EB" by Wellcome Library, London is licensed unde...
Q and A Requests
Planning on doing a Q and A about the show as an Xmas special. If you have any questions about the show or the history of science in general send them to the below address.
thecompletehistoryofscience@gmail.com
This episode will self destruct in two weeks time.
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The New Astronomy [Johannes Kepler Part 3]
After years of struggle, Johannes Kepler finally had the tools and data to wage what he called his “War with Mars.” Rejecting ancient assumptions he used Tycho Brahe’s observations to discover his first two laws of planetary motion. His New Astronomy not only redefined celestial mechanics but transformed astronomy from a geometric art into a true physical science.
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Let Me Not Seem to Have Lived in Vain [Johannes Kepler Part 2]
In 1600, Johannes Kepler arrived at Tycho Brahe’s castle hoping to escape religious persecution and gain access to the most precise astronomical data in Europe. Their relationship was strained by clashing temperaments — Tycho’s secrecy and pride meeting Kepler’s impatience and ambition — yet their collaboration began to bear fruit as Kepler tackled problems of planetary motion and optical theory. Despite constant uncertainty, Kepler’s time at Benátky marked the beginning of a partnership that would reshape astronomy and set him on the path toward his greatest discoveries.
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Secrets of the Universe [Johannes Kepler Part 1]
Johannes Kepler rose from a difficult childhood to become a brilliant but unconventional student, deeply influenced by his Lutheran faith, Copernican astronomy, and a belief in divine harmony within the cosmos. In Graz he developed his bold first theory, published in Mysterium Cosmographicum, which linked the orbits of the planets to the five Platonic solids and made him one of the earliest open defenders of heliocentrism. Facing religious persecution and desperate for accurate data, Kepler set out to join Tycho Brahe in Prague, convinced that Tycho’s observations were the key to uncovering the universe’s hidden order.
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Tycho's World System [Tycho Brahe Part 3]
Tycho Brahe’s observations of the Great Comet of 1577 and his discovery of atmospheric refraction led him to reject solid celestial spheres and reassess the structure of the cosmos. Seeking an alternative to both the Ptolemaic and Copernican systems, he developed a geo-heliocentric model in which the Sun orbited the Earth while the planets orbited the Sun, a theory he supported with years of precise measurements, including a (mistaken) parallax for Mars. Though he failed to find definitive proof, Tycho’s tireless pursuit of accuracy and his revolutionary instruments laid the groundwork for the astronomical breakthroughs that would follow.
Hven is a Place on Earth [Tycho Brahe Part 2]
In 1576, Tycho Brahe was offered something no astronomer had ever received before: an island of his own. On the remote Baltic isle of Hven, Tycho set out to build the most advanced observatory in Europe. But just as construction began, a brilliant comet appeared in the night sky. For Tycho, it was more than a celestial spectacle: it was a chance to test Aristotle, challenge old ideas, and prove that careful observation could overturn centuries of dogma. This episode traces Tycho’s transformation from wandering scholar to scientific institution, as he turns a lonely island into the centre of the...
A New Star [Tycho Brahe Part 1]
13/06/25 - Episode was removed due to audio errors and reuploaded. Sorry!
In 1572, a mysterious new star appeared in the sky, defying the ancient belief that the heavens never changed. Tycho Brahe, a Danish nobleman with a passion for astronomy, set out to uncover the truth. His meticulous observations challenged established ideas and sparked debates among scholars. But Tycho’s journey wasn’t just about science, it was a struggle against family expectations, social norms, and the limits of the tools at his disposal. This episode is the first of three parts exploring how one man’s curiosity reshape...
A New Star [Tycho Brahe Part 1]
In 1572, a mysterious new star appeared in the sky, defying the ancient belief that the heavens never changed. Tycho Brahe, a Danish nobleman with a passion for astronomy, set out to uncover the truth. His meticulous observations challenged established ideas and sparked debates among scholars. But Tycho’s journey wasn’t just about science, it was a struggle against family expectations, social norms, and the limits of the tools at his disposal. This episode is the first of three parts exploring how one man’s curiosity reshaped our understanding of the universe and set the stage for a new era of...
The Lodestone, the Compass and the Magnetic Earth
In this episode we trace the early development of magnetism and the compass—from ancient Chinese navigation to the groundbreaking insights of medieval and Renaissance Europe. The episode highlights the work of Peter Peregrinus, a 13th-century scholar whose detailed experiments with magnets laid the foundation for future magnetic science, and Robert Norman, who devised a method to reveal the mysterious “dip” of the magnetic needle. It also explores early efforts to understand magnetic declination, map its behavior, and investigate the nature of Earth’s magnetic forces. From the legends surrounding the compass’s invention to the precision of William Gilbert’s D...
Circulation! [William Harvey Part 3]
At the start of the 17th century Harvey finally put all of the pieces in place. He had discovered that blood circulates through the body with the heart acting as a pump. Realising that he was undermining a millenia of Galenism, he set out carefully, working to convince his peers of his discovery. He made many public demonstrations to support his findings, meeting both support and controversy.
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Be Still My Beating Heart [William Harvey Part 2]
In 1602, William Harvey joined the College of Physicians to secure his medical career, but behind the scenes, he was conducting bold anatomical research. Through dissections, vivisections, and innovative experiments on blood flow and the heart, Harvey began challenging Galen’s teachings. His relentless curiosity would soon lead to the groundbreaking discovery of blood circulation.
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Aristotle My General, Fabricius My Guide [William Harvey Part 1]
In late 1599, William Harvey, having completed his B.A. at Cambridge, sought further education abroad. His father, a successful businessman, funded his journey to Padua, a renowned center of medical learning.
At Padua, Harvey encountered the teachings of Aristotle, particularly the idea of understanding the "final cause" of things, which influenced his approach to medicine. He also studied under Hieronymous Fabricius, who combined Aristotelian philosophy with detailed dissections, shaping Harvey’s future medical practices.
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Fallopio and Fabricius
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Realdo Colombo and the Pulmonary Transit of the Blood
Realdo Colombo, a former student and colleague of Vesalius, challenged aspects of Galenic anatomy and made significant strides in understanding blood circulation. Through vivisection, Colombo discovered that blood circulates through the lungs, a finding that corrected earlier theories and contributed to a major shift in Renaissance anatomical and physiological studies. His work, though not initially credited, played a crucial role in advancing medical knowledge and laid the groundwork for future discoveries in human physiology.
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The Book of the Body [Vesalius Part 2]
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The World of Andreas Vesalius [Vesalius Part 1]
The background and early life of the great renaissance anatomist Andreas Vesalius.
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On the Revolutions [Copernicus Part 2]
This episode explores the pivotal encounter in Nicolaus Copernicus's later life when he met the young mathematician known as Rheticus. Rheticus, a prodigy from the University of Wittenberg, sought out Copernicus in Frombork, Poland, to learn more about his heliocentric theory. Despite their differences, Rheticus and Copernicus's collaboration that resulted in the publication of Copernicus's groundbreaking work, 'On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres.'
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A More Reasonable Arrangement [Copernicus Part 1]
In this episode we delve into the early life of Nicolaus Copernicus, the astronomer who challenged the geocentric model of the universe. From his upbringing in Torun, Poland, to his academic journey at Jagiellonian University and travels to Bologna and Rome, follow Copernicus's passion for astronomy amid societal expectations. Discover the pivotal moments that led to his groundbreaking heliocentric model, which revolutionized our understanding of the cosmos.
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Regiomontanus and the Revival of Astronomy in the West
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The Apogee of Islamic Astronomy
In the late medieval period, while Europe obsessed over Aristotle's natural philosophy, the Islamic world entered the zenith of astronomical discoveries. In this episode, we explore the remarkable contributions of two great astronomers, al-Tusi and al-Shatir. Amidst the dominance of Ptolemaic astronomy, they embarked on a mission to unravel its lingering problems.
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Roger Bacon
In this episode we delve into the life and legacy of the enigmatic Roger Bacon. Once considered a magician with fantastical abilities, Bacon's reputation transformed over the centuries, oscillating between mystical figure and scientific pioneer. Born in 1220, Bacon's journey through Oxford, Paris, and his unexpected entry into the Franciscan order unfolds against the backdrop of a changing Europe. Join us as we explore Bacon's intricate blend of philosophy, optics, and experimental science, shedding light on his revolutionary contributions to the pursuit of knowledge.
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Medieval Mechanics
Perhaps the greatest orginal contribution to science in the medieval period was initiated at Merton College Oxford. A group of scholars worked to mathematise nature and prove new theorems decribing motion. Meanwhile in Paris, another scholar was working on a theory which undermined Aristotle's theories of motion and paved the way for Newtonian Mechanics.
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The University
In the later medieval period, Europe's bustling new cities developed a new type of institution, The University. In this episode we explore the early university and in particular its relationship with Aristotle's natural philosophy, which would form the core of the curriculum.
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Translatio Studii et Imperii
In the 12th century a young man set out in search of a book. The Almagest, the great work of astronomy had disappeared from western Europe and had long ceased to be read. The young man, Gerard, eventually found the work in Toledo, Spain and translated it into Latin. This story however, is only part of a Europe wide movement, whereby many of the great Greek works would finally become available.
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The Poverty of the Latins
Scientific thought was rejuvenated in the 10th century as the Christians in the north came into contact with Islamic culture in Iberia. Gerbert, a monk from Aurillac in Southern France played a key role in this process, introducing to Europe many innovations, such as the abacus, the armillary sphere and new mathematics. In doing so he revitalised teaching, particularly of the quadrivium and demonstrated to the Latins the advanced knowledge of the Greeks and Arabs.
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On the Nature of Things
After the collapse of the Roman Empire, western Europe fractured into many small petty states. A period of economic contraction coincided with a decline in learning and during the early medieval age Europe entered a nadir. However, the church kept some form of ancient scientific thought alive and figures such as Isidore of Seville and the Venerable Bede worked to preserve this knowledge.
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The Scientist and The Philosopher
In the late 10th, early 11th century two great men debated the causes of natural phenomena. One of them was the greatest philosopher of the age, Ibn Sina, who had refined Aristotle's philosophy into a finely honed system. The other, al-Biruni, was perhaps the greatest polymath of the age, who invented new fields of study and whose devotion to observation was unparalleled. In a series of letters the two men clashed over large cosmological questions and everyday phenomena and their exchange stands as one the most important intellectual debates of the age.
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Islamic Developments in Optics
While al-Haytham's visual theory was a clear triumph, his work also had a more subtle but profound effect. His treatment of light as a quanitity which was related to but independent of vision was an important step on the path to our modern understanding of optics. In this episode we explore the other parts of his 'Book of Optics' as well as the achievement of his forgotten contemporary Ibn Sahl.
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Islamic Developments in Medicine
Tracing the emergence of medicine in the Islamic world and its embrace of Galen, this week's episode explores the progress made in treatments and anatomy by Islamic scientists.
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Al Haytham's Theory of Vision
The Greek Philosophers had long debated the nature of vision, without any definitive conclusion. They were divided, between the belief that it was either a stimulus entering the eye or a visual ray projected from the eye. This debate however, was finally settled by the great Hasan Ibn Al-Haytham, who developed the first modern theory of vision. In this episode we explore Al-Haytham's optical work as one of the first great experimentalists who investigated the nature of light and his development of a new theory of perspective.
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The Sun Sets in the West and Rises in the East
Astronomy was king of the sciences in the ancient world, but since the death of Ptolemy progress had all but stalled. Fortunately astronomy was rediscovered by the Arabs, who undertook a huge translation of Greek work into Arabic. This next generation of astronomers venerated Ptolemy but also surpassed him, improving upon his measurements and theories. This episode examines this rediscovery and follows the broad developments in the Islamic world between the 9th and 11th century.
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The Scientific Dark Ages
After the death of Ptolemy and Galen the progress of science in the ancient world started to slow. Roughly between the years 200-800 A.D. very little advances were made in most areas of science and there would be no successors to the great men. Nevertheless the period was one of immense change including the collapse of the Roman Empire in the West and the rise of Christianity.
However, there was at least one important figure in the history of science during this era. John Philoponus (c. 490 – c. 570) gave the most robust and important critique of Aristotle's natural...
Galen and the Anatomists
Galen was the greatest medical man in the ancient world. His fame rested upon his abilities as a healer, but also his unparalleled knowledge of the human body. This episode explores Galen's time in Rome where he demonstrated his impressive knowledge of anatomy which was unsurpassed in antiquity. We also investigate Galen's predeccessors Aristotle, Praxagoras, Herophilus and Erasistratus who between them invented the fields of anatomy and physiology.
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The Triumph of Hippocratic Medicine
In the 5th century B.C. a new form of medicine emerged in the ancient world. This new 'Hippocratic' medicine emerged to sweep away traditional medicine, at least in learned circles, and would become the basis for the more scientific medicine which would develop in the future. Along the way we will also explore the work of Galen, the greatest doctor of antiquity, and discover how his influence would ensure the triumph of Hippocratic medicine.
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The Origins of Medicine
Medicine is the most urgent of all the sciences and for as long as there have been disease, injury and death, humans have attempted to treat it. In this episode we delve into the very early history of medince, going back to the Neolithic Era, before exploring medicne in the worlds first civilisations.
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The Origins and Development of Optics
Many Greek scientific fields were born out of simple questions. Optics was one such field, which was not so much the study of light, but an attempt to answer the question, "How do we see?". This episode takes in the development of Optics over the course of around 500 years from its inception to the work of Ptolemy in the 2nd century A.D.
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Archimedes
Archimedes is a unique indiviudal in the history of science. Unlike all of his ancient contemporaries, his scientific legacy is still largely intact and widely accepted in the modern era. While many legends surround his life, we delve into his more solid scientific legacy and explore the impact and importance of his work.
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Aristotle: The Philosopher as Scientist
Ancient Greece was the birthplace of many scientific fields. The men we have to thank for this are the Greek philosophers, who while not scientists in our sense, were frequently exploring scientific ideas. The greatest of these 'scientific' philosophers was arguably Aristotle, whose interest in the natural world would, more than any other individual in antiquity, shape the development of scientific thought. While we now know most of his ideas were false, this episode sets out to defend his legacy and place it in the context of the scientific work which would for the next millenia develop under his inf...
Ptolemy and The Almagest
By the beginning of the 1st century A.D. the great age of astronomy in ancient Greece was coming to an end. However, before it did, there was one last noteworthy figure, who would take ancient astronomy to its pinnacle. Ptolemy wrote arguably the most important work of science in the ancient world. Known as The Almagest, it would collect all early knowledge of astronomy into a single work, and set the course of science for the next 1000 year.
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